The impact of declining soil fertility on the poverty situation and food security of smallholder farmers is often underestimated. One third of the world's arable land is already degraded, affecting around 180 million people in the sub-Saharan Africa region alone. The West African country of Benin, with heavily depleted soils in many places, is no exception.
Bei Treffen mit der Dorfgemeinschaft wird die Bodenproblematik offen diskutiert. (c) Karin Gaesing
Dr. rer. pol. Karin Gaesing, geographer and spatial planner, is a researcher at INEF, University of Duisburg-Essen. She has many years of experience in development cooperation, including for GTZ in Ethiopia and Côte d'Ivoire, and as a freelance consultant in Africa and India. She is an expert in regional planning, gender, participation and land use planning.
Dr. phil. Frank Bliss is Professor for development anthropology at the University of Hamburg and senior research fellow and lecturer at the University of Duisburg-Essen (INEF). He did research in Egypt, Maghrib, Sudan, in Central Asia and several other countries. As a consultant, he mainly worked in the water sector and in projects related to the implementation of social safeguards of infrastructure as well as in policy advice.
Especially in densely populated areas, land pressure leads to overexploitation of available land, as the necessity of meeting subsistence needs makes it difficult to implement conservation measures. This lack of soil conservation measures and low inputs of nutrients in the form of organic or chemical fertilisers exacerbate the problem. Broad-based support and advisory services, especially in smallholder agriculture, are necessary to restore severely degraded soils. Through public and donor-supported measures, farmers can be enabled to make a decisive contribution to the preservation of the local ecosystem, but above all to increasing their own production. Secure land rights, and particularly rights of use within households, play a role crucial in this context. Women cultivate their fields primarily for subsistence production, but are too rarely included in advisory measures. This creates a developmental imbalance with far-reaching effects on the poverty and food situation of families.
Formalising Land Rights
In Benin, according to traditional understanding, farmland belongs to the family of the first settler-, who cleared it generations ago. The eldest of the (male) descendants of this family, or today of the entire clan that emerged from it, is responsible as chef de terre (also known locally in French as roi or king) for the allocation to other users. Until two to three generations ago, the preservation of the rights of use was dependent on the actual cultivation of the land. If this did not happen, the land reverted to the chef de terre, who could pass it on to third parties.
Anyone who needed land came to the chef de terre and requested - usually in the context of a small ceremony involving an offering of kola nuts to the chef and a consultation of the ancestors by the chef - a piece of arable land or bush land appropriate to his needs for cultivation. As long as free land was at hand, this land was made available, more or less compulsorily to clan members, but also voluntarily to third petitioners. Initially, the allocation of land was only understood as the granting of a temporary right of use to an individual, but in the 20th century this right of use became heritable and finally a holder of the right could even pass it on (as don, French in the sense of gift). However, he could not sell the land, as it still did not legally belong to the holder of the right of use. Formally, all land in a village still "belonged" to the chef de terre, who administered it on behalf of the ancestors as the ultimate owners.
The traditional land law in Benin is currently being replaced by 'modern' legislation that aims to transform the partially inherited rights to land use into registered property titles. On the one hand, the reason given for the change is to create more legal certainty and thus minimise disputes over land use rights. On the other hand, it is obvious that previously non-tradable land use rights should then become tradable as land ownership rights. The reason given for this, especially by development cooperation (DC) organisations, is the opportunity to mobilise significantly more loans for agricultural production in view of the fact that banks can lend on land titles.
As a hidden agenda, it can of course be assumed that the "reform" in Benin is intended to promote and legalise land grabbing by members of the political elite, as can be observed elsewhere. Examples from the neighbouring country of Burkina Faso show that when land becomes tradable, small owners (can) take out fewer loans for investments and are instead deprived of their property by speculators in a very short time. Here, many families in the outskirts of the capital Ouagadougou sold their land titles immediately after receiving them. After a very short time, the seemingly "huge" income was completely spent, causing the families to irretrievably lose their economic livelihood. Similar negative consequences of formalised land titles can be observed in India and Cambodia.
However, the new legislation in Benin is not, at least in theory, a complete conversion of communal or traditional land rights into individual titles, with millions of hectares of "tribal trust lands" being taken away from collectives and redistributed to investors, as in Zambia. Rather, it is the formalisation of a permanent (i.e. also inheritable) land claim that has been customary for at least two generations in favour of the farmers using the land. At least in the villages of northern Benin, which were investigated during a project study by the Institute for Development and Peace (INEF) of the University of Duisburg-Essen, land grabbing comparable to the situation in Zambia has not been reported. Here, traditional titles are currently being transferred one-to-one into property titles without any loss of land.
The harvested stalks are left in the field to add nutrients to the soil . (c) Karin Gaesing
Land Rights and Gender in Benin
Traditionally, only very few ethnic groups in Benin allow women to have any land use rights at all, which are separated from the rights of their husbands, brothers or fathers as an independent right of use. Claims of this kind are found, for example, in the region around Bohicon-Abomey, where exactly three of 20 women interviewed in the INEF study had such a right. They had inherited their land mostly from their fathers or from their mother, but also had, additionally, bought their land, which, strictly speaking, can hardly be considered legal before the current title registration.
Unlike the situation in Ethiopia or Cambodia, for example, the current land title registration process does not take gender into account. Since almost exclusively inherited (héritage) or, to a lesser extent, donated (don) land is recorded on the basis of the current owners and registered in their names, the registration leads to a cementing of patriarchal land ownership structures.
With regard to the fields given to women for use upon marriage, the different ethnic groups in Benin proceed differently. For example, the INEF research team in northern Benin learned that among the Peulh (Fulbé), women are allowed to keep these fields for life, even in the event of the husband's death or divorce. However, among the Bariba living in the same area, the woman is deprived of the field in both these cases. The husband can also claim the field for himself at any time for other reasons.
This state of affairs has considerable consequences for all agricultural DC measures that are geared towards water and soil conservation measures and / or promote productivity by advising on cultivation techniques or promoting the provision of inputs such as improved seeds and fertilisers. These DC contributions can easily double yields and also improve the quality of the soil, thus securing the additional yield in the long term. This developmental success is verifiable. However, a cynical testimony of the effects, i.e. the visible successes of the investment in the land, is the repeatedly observed fact that men have taken the fields back from their wives, who had worked the land, thus raising its value and repeatedly switched these for marginal yield sites. Over time, this problem was countered by raising it as a topic at group meetings and discussing it intensively. The result is that in many villages today, there is hardly a man who ever dares to take land away from his wife again for fear of opening himself to ridicule as the village egoist.
Women restore soil fertility with the legume Mucuna. (c) GIZ/ProSol
Gender Aspects in International Cooperation Measures
These examples of land use rights within households in Benin makes clear that the inclusion of women in agricultural extension services is fundamental for sustaining the success of the measures, but would also have to be linked to land titling. The fact that women bring profits and returns from their activities almost entirely into the household is by now well known. For Benin, as for other countries in sub-Saharan Africa, this effect is amplified by the fact that the proportion of women in agricultural work is estimated at 70% (FAO).
The improvement of soil fertility can be decisively advanced through targeted and adapted extension measures. While in extensive agriculture e.g. field rotation and thus sufficient fallow can achieve desired effects, crop technology knowledge is necessary if the land is used intensively. The INEF study of a GIZ project on soil improvement in northern Benin was able to document considerable increases in production through the application of soil improvement measures. The measures applied included conservation agriculture techniques, e.g. mulching, and erosion control measures through the construction of stone walls, agroforestry techniques and improved pasture management among livestock farmers. The targeted inclusion of women in the advisory services was of central importance in the monitored project, an approach that is by no means the norm internationally.
The strengthening of women's rights is said to have enormous economic potential. The expanded inclusion of women in the national economy, and especially in market-oriented agriculture, has great potential to increase the economic balance. The positive relationship between gender equality, growth and poverty reduction must therefore be incorporated more effectively into development policy measures. In addition, the effects on other household members, especially the nutritional, health and educational situation of children, improves through better education and improved access to resources for women, thereby contributing to a large number of the Sustainable Development Goals adopted in 2015.
As early as the 1970s, Ester Boserup described the gender problem in agriculture, which Diane Elson later described as ‚male bias‘. The role of women as independent producers, for Benin especially in the cultivation of staple foods, has been underestimated. The reasons for this lie in extension services often dominated by male staff, the primary targeting of men in these services in their role as "the farmers" and as heads of households, and in dynamics within the households themselves. For example, women are often unable to attend extension meetings because of their extremely heavy workloads. This leads to a super-majority of public and private extension services allocated to men, thereby preventing women from accessing targeted measures aimed specifically at them. Coupled with patriarchal land titling, the economic potentials described above can as a result, only be tapped to a very limited extent.
Literature
AfDB. African Development Bank (2018): West Africa Economic Outlook 2018. AfDB. & World Economic Forum (2020): Global Gender Gap Report 2020. WEF.
Bliss, Frank: Zum Beispiel Soja. Eine erfolgreiche Wertschöpfungskette im westafrikanischen Benin. AVE-Studie 14/2019. INEF.
Boserup, E (1970): Woman's role in economic development. St. Martin's Press.
Elson, D. (Ed.). (1991): Male bias in the development process. Manchester University Press.
Gaesing, Karin und Bliss, Frank (2019): Entwicklung, Landrecht, Gender und Bodenfruchtbarkeit in Benin. AVE-Studie 17/2019. INEF.
Glatzel, K., Conway, G., Alpert, E., & Brittain, S. (2016). No ordinary matter: Conserving, restoring and enhancing Africa’s soils. A Montpellier panel report. Montpellier Panel.
IFPRI (International Food Policy Research Institute) 2005: Women: Still the Key to Food and Nutrition Security. Report 33. IFPRI.
World Bank (2010): Gender and Governance in Rural Services. The World Bank.
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The guiding orientation framework developed by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) summarizes the requirements for the transformation of agriculture and food systems – and identifies principles and approaches for transformative change.
Every second, worldwide, we lose valuable and healthy soil with the size of four football fields. This was only one of the many facts being presented to a wide audience in Bonn and worldwide via livestream at the World Desertification and Drought Day on 17th June 2024. This was the 30th anniversary of the United Nations Convention on Combatting Desertification (UNCCD), which was celebrated at the Bundeskunsthalle in Bonn.
Diversifying our protein supply to include plant-based foods and cultivated meat can be a game-changer for climate mitigation and climate adaptation, especially in the countries of the Global South. However, a great deal of research is still required to capitalise on this potential. And political support, as Ivo Rzegotta, Good Food Institute, demonstrates.
In Himachal Pradesh, India, natural disasters are becoming more frequent and climatic conditions are changing – with negative consequences for apple production and farmers' livelihoods. Holistic and multidimensional innovation bundles are required for the entire value chain in order to make the food system more resilient in the future.
Africa’s largest youth generation has the potential to transform agriculture sustainably. Young entrepreneurs like Febelsa in Mozambique are building agricultural businesses that fuel local growth.
A Contribution by Emmanuel Atamba & Larissa Stiem-Bhatia
Drawing on dialogues with experts in Kenya, TMG Research releases its latest policy brief highlighting the critical need to strengthen coordination mechanisms in food systems governance. Emmanuel Atamba and Larissa Stiem-Bhatia from TMG Research summarize the results.
This is a benchmark for everybody: More rights for women are a very influencing solution in the struggle against extreme poverty and hunger worldwide, says Stephan Exo-Kreischer, Director of ONE Germany. The organisation specialises in political campaigning as a lever for sustainable change.
By leasing a three hundred hectare fruit plantation in Ethiopia, Lutz Hartmann has realised a long-cherished dream: to run his own business in Africa. Now he has a personal interest in the issue of Africa’s development.
Africa has a huge opportunity to make agriculture its economic driver. However, the potential for this is far from being made exhaustive use of, one reason being that women face considerable difficulties in their economic activities. The organisation AWAN Afrika seeks to change this state of affairs.
A contribution by Michael Windfuhr (German Institute for Human Rights)
Land rights are no longer governed by the law of the strongest. That is what the international community has agreed to. Governments and private companies have a duty to respect human rights and avoid corruption.
A contribution by Roselyn Korleh and M. Sahr Nouwah (WHH)
The Liberian town of Kinjor is a picture-book example for what happens, if land rights aren’t protected, and it illustrates how to move forward from there. The keyword: Multi-Actor Partnership
"One World no Hunger" (SEWOH) becomes one of the five core themes of the BMZ. Dirk Schattschneider, SEWOH Commissioner about previous approaches, future areas of action, and the political will to end hunger.
How the UN Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests (VGGT) contribute to fairer and more secure land access.
At the UNCCD COP15, the Töpfer Müller Gaßner Think Tank (TMG) hosted four side events. The agenda of the kick-off event included discussions for the Human Rights and Land Navigator.
Priscilla Impraim is one of the first women in Ghana to enter the chocolate business. Despite some hurdles, she founded the company Ab Ovo Confectionery Limited in 2006 with currently six permanent employees and 25 seasonal employees.
In the midst of global climate discussions, a resounding call emerges: Women's land rights must be the cornerstone of our climate actions. They're not just pieces of the puzzle; they form the foundation for true climate resilience. TMG Think Tank for Sustainability reports from the first African Climate Summit.
In the West Bank, political tensions and increasingly poor weather conditions are making farming more difficult. What needs to be done? Questions for Abbas Milhem, Executive Director of the Palestinian Farmers Union (PFU).
Agriculture as it is currently practiced erodes soils worldwide up to 100 times faster than they can be regenerated by natural processes. In the #HerLand campaign for COP16, the UNCCD is focusing on women as key players in conserving soils and combating drought. The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) has also contributed to the campaign focusing on securing women's land rights.
Does Africa's youth want to live in the city or in the country? Which career path seems particularly attractive? And how optimistic are the young people about the future? Young adults from rural areas answered these questions by SMS.
How can agriculture modernise Africa? And does the road to the cities really lead out of poverty? Dr. Reiner Klingholz from the Berlin Institute for Population and Development in conversation with Jan Rübel .
Africa is home to the world’s youngest and fastest growing population. For many young people, agriculture could offer a job perspective. But to improve the living conditions and job prospects of young people in rural areas, political reforms and investments are desperately needed, as these people will be at the centre of agriculture and agricultural development in the future.
A contribution by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
Africa’s population is young and ready to take its destiny into its own hands. Agriculture offers amazing opportunities in this regard. The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation wants to support the next generation in this way.
Stefan Liebing is chairman of the Africa Association of German Business. The manager calls for a better structure of African farms. Jan Rübel asked him about small farmers, the opportunities for German start-ups and a new fund.
What happens when young people leave the rural areas? How can the region achieve what is referred to as the demographic bonus – and how can it reap the benefits of the demographic dividend? A look at demography shows the following: What is most important is promoting women’s rights and education.
The world’s population keeps on growing; with this rise comes an increased need for food as well as productive employment opportunities. Offering young people in rural areas better employment prospects is one of the objectives of the sector project. The young population is the key to a modern and efficient agricultural economy.
Cities play an important role in the transformation of food systems. But what exactly are the potentials and challenges? A three-way discussion between Ruth Okowa (Gain), Delphine Larrousse (World Vegetable Center) and Conrad Graf von Hoyos (GIZ).
In Eastern El Salvador, campesinos are cultivating a self-image to encourage rural youth to remain in rural areas. With help from Caritas, they have adjusted the cultivation methods to their soils and traditions - Marvin Antonio Garcia Otero,the deputy director of Caritas of the Diocese of San Miguel believes this is the best way to prevent rural exodus and criminality.
Africa's cotton production plays a key role in the fight against poverty. The "Cotton Made in Africa" initiative promotes sustainable cultivation - one element of which is the use of organic pesticides. Entomologist Ben Sekamatte and cotton company manager Boaz Ogola talked with Jan Rübel about soil and yields.
Small farmers in developing countries must modernise their farming methods, but poorly understood reforms could exacerbate poverty instead of alleviating it.
For years, place-based approaches to development have been considered important features in development cooperation, at the BMZ and in FAO. Both organisations are aiming at advancing these approaches: an interview with Adriano Campolina from the FAO on territorial and landscape perspectives.
Companies in Africa that need financing between $20,000 and $200,000 find relatively few investors, as this sector is too large for microcredit and too small for institutional investors. This creates a "gap in the middle" where companies have limited options. A project of the World Resource Institute provides a remedy with the Landaccelerator 2020.
Environmental change is having a particularly strong impact on the African continent. Its landscapes see both negative and positive processes. What is science's view of this? A conversation with Cyrus Samimi about mobility for livelihoods, urban gardening and dealing with nature.
With the help of sustainable farming methods, soils can be preserved and made fertile again. The investment required is also worthwhile from a financial perspective.
Financial innovations can prevent a crisis turning into a catastrophe. The livelihoods of people in affected areas may well depend on intervention before a crisis – and on risk funds.
What are the consequences of using synthetic pesticides in agriculture? Where do they help, where do they harm? Lena Luig, expert for the development policy organization INKOTA, and science journalist Ludger Weß discuss this controversial topic of international scope.
A contribution by Dr. May Hokan and Dr. Arnulf Köhncke (WWF)
Due to the coronavirus crisis, the connection between human and animal health has gained new attention. Politicians and scientists are joining forces to propagate the solution: One Health. But what is behind the concept? And can it also guarantee food security for all people worldwide?
Stig Tanzmann is a farmer and adviser on agricultural issues at ‘Bread for the World’. Jan Rübel interviewed him about his reservations about AGRA's strategy.
The Cashew Council is the first international organisation for a raw material stemming from Africa. The industry promises to make progress in processing and refining cashew nuts - and answers to climate change
It began with clicks at a trade fair and ends with concrete reforestation: a campaign at the Green Week in Berlin is now enriching the forests of the Yen Bai Province in Vietnam. A chronicle of an education about climatic relevance to concrete action - and about the short distances on our planet.
A contribution by Dr. Kathleen Mar and Dr. Nicole de Paula
Against the backdrop of the COVID-19 pandemic, health is receiving unprecedented public and political attention. Yet the fact that climate change is also affecting the environmental and social determinants of health in a profound and far-reaching way deserves further recognition.
In the tropics rainforests are still being felled for the production of palm oil, meat and furniture. It is high time to act. Proposals are on the table.
In this article, the author describes what we know about interlinkages, what role agriculture has to play in the sustainable use and conservation of biodiversity, and what the necessary changes in agricultural systems might look like, both on small and large-scale farms.
Every one degree Celsius rise in temperature increases the risk of conflict by two to ten percent. The climate crisis is a humanitarian crisis, as the photos by Christoph Püschner and Frank Schultze illustrate.
Regarding deforestation free supply chains, there are challenges and opportunities for smallholder farmers as well as for international forest governance. Also, responsibilities for companies and potential incentives for manufacturers to use materials from fair trade and sustainable sources need to be explored. But what does “deforestation-free” actually mean?
The oceans are important for our food supply, but they are overfished. To halt this trend the global community is now taking action against illegal fishing. Journalist Jan Rübel spoke with Francesco Marí, a specialist for world food, agricultural trade and maritime policy at "Brot für die Welt," and others.
Interview with Caroline Milow and Ramon Brentführer
Groundwater resources remain dormant in the soil of African regions. Where does it make sense to use them – and where does overexploitation of nature begin? Caroline Milow (GIZ) and Ramon Brentführer (BGR) talk about potentials in the future and lessons from the past.
Roughly 800 million people suffer from hunger worldwide. Change is needed - for people and for the environment. Brot für die Welt reports on the starting points offered by everyone's ecological footprint and handprint.
Recycling organic waste into soil amendments and animal feed through a transdisciplinary approach – this is what the RUNRES project, launched in four sub-Saharan African countries four years ago, seeks to achieve. Three of the project's scientists report.
The textile industry contributes significantly to environmental pollution as it produces over 100 billion garments every year, resulting in huge CO2 emissions and water consumption. Fashion designer Paul Kadjo uses banana silk as an environmentally friendly alternative to make textile production more environmentally conscious and socially just.
The Nyayo Tea Zones Development Corporation is committed to the preservation of forests in Kenya: The establishment of so-called buffer zones counteracts deforestation by planting trees and tea. In addition to the production of environmentally friendly tea, the project benefits the resources of the forests and the livelihoods of the communities living near the forests, says project manager Wallace Gichunge.
Insurance companies could provide protection during droughts in Africa. How exactly this could be done is what the industry is currently trying to figure out. First experiences are available. An interview with the Managing Director of the Munich Re Foundation, Thomas Loster
The Global Hunger Index (GHI) 2020 shows that the world is not on track to meet the international goal of “zero hunger by 2030”. If we continue at our current speed, around 37 countries will not even have reached a low hunger level by 2030.
Besides the well known impacts of Covid19 lockdowns for the adult population, the associated school closures led to 90 percent of the world’s children with no access to schools. However, school meals are in often the only daily meal for children. Without access to this safety net, issues like hunger, poverty and malnutrition are exacerbated for hundreds of millions of children.
While Africa is the least affected region by Covid-19 so far, the number of confirmed cases and deaths on the continent is quickly rising. Despite the challenges many African countries continue to face, the African response to the coronavirus pandemic displays innovation and ingenuity.
Corona makes it even more difficult to achieve a world without hunger by 2030. So that this perspective does not get out of sight, Germany must play a stronger role internationally - a summary of the Strategic Advisory Group of SEWOH.
From a circular food system in Rwanda to functioning cooled transports in Kenya: The lab of tomorrow addresses development challenges such as preventing food loss and waste
Agroecological methods target diversity and resilience and can thus promote the protection of forests, water and soil. Julia Tomalka and Christoph Gornott, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), on the potential of agroecology to safeguard against climate change and build resilient agri-food system.
Martin Frick has been director of the WFP office in Berlin for a year – since then one hunger crisis has followed another. What are the diplomat's answers? A conversation about opportunities in agriculture, the interplay of multiple crises, the importance of resilience and tighter budgets.
The Federal Government is fine-tuning a law that would require companies to ensure human rights – a supply chain law. What are the consequences for the agricultural sector? Dr Bettina Rudloff from the German Institute for International and Security Affairs (SWP) discusses linking policy fields with added value.
‘Fair’ and ‘sustainable’ are key words in Germany’s EU Council Presidency. At the same time, Germany pursues ‘modernization’ of the WTO and ‘rapid progress’ on free trade agreements. Are these goals really compatible? Can we be concerned about fairness and sustainability while continuing with ‘business as usual’?
Interview with Bernadette Arakwiye und Salima Mahamoudou (World Resources Institute)
Deforestation is leading to a shortage of ressources. What are the options for counteracting? A conversation with Bernadette Arakwiye and Salima Mahamoudou about renaturation and the possibilities of artificial intelligence.
At the climate conference in Glasgow, activists from various groups protested again – Leonie Bremer from ‘Fridays for Future’ was there too. How can climate protection and development cooperation work hand in hand?
A conversation with aquatic researcher Shakuntala Thilsted on the long-neglected nutrition benefits of aquatic diets and the empowering qualities of a sustainable aqua-food systems transformation.
A Contribution by Adrian Muller, Catherine Pfeifer and Jürn Sanders (FiBL)
Taking Biodiversity Focus Areas under production or abandoning lower yielding, more extensive production systems is the wrong approach to mastering the looming global food crisis, say the authors of the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL).
Germany joins the international Agroecology Coalition, reinforcing its commitment to fair, sustainable agriculture and ensuring the future viability of rural areas. By adopting a holistic approach, agroecology is helping to address the greatest challenges of our time: protecting the climate, combating hunger and preserving biodiversity.
A Contribution by Harry Hoffmann (TMG) & Nathalie Demel (WHH)
At the halfway mark of the 2030 Agenda and two years after the UN Food System Summit 2021, a stocktaking moment was held in Rome to analyze the progress of countries on the commitments to action in transforming food systems. Dr Harry Hoffmann, TMG Think Tank, and Nathalie Demel, Welthungerhilfe, were on site and take stock as well.
The production of animal-source foods is becoming increasingly difficult due to the impact of climate change on the livestock sector in Africa. Though, Livestock make a crucial contribution to food security in Africa. Three papers by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), GIZ, ILRI and World Bank analyze, how Africas future livestock sector can look like.
Agriculture is coming under pressure worldwide: bacteria, viruses and insects are causing problems for crops. In Palestine, Dr. Rana Samara from the Palestinian Academy of Science and Technology is researching solutions to the problem. And she finds them in nature itself.
What do chocolate, carrots and tequila have in common? What sounds like the ingredients for an experimental cocktail are foods that would not exist without certain animal species. They are examples of how nature works for us every day, often behind the scenes.
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